* The image of old-world sea travel is one that we are all familiar with at a glance. The wooden-hulled vessels and towering rigging leave quite an impression, one helped by stories of far-away fortunes and adventures. This somewhat romantic idea of sea travel was popularized in the 17th and 18th centuries by colonial propaganda and the golden age of piracy, and it's sentiments have lingered long after. However, this sensationalism has somewhat eclipsed the reality that early sea travel was at best a grim necessity and at worst an avoidable travesty. By the 19th century colonial powers had necessitated regular trans-Atlantic crossings to ferry goods, weapons, and people to and from the new world. The industry was all but defined by it's parsimony, both due to the confines of its vessels and the greed of its benefactors. The result was an oppressively utilitarian system that managed to make sea travel miserable for it's customers and employees.
Engineered Squalor
Travelling through open sea necessitated a change in how ships themselves were built. The earliest and most obvious change was the size of the average vessel, as coastal stops became less and less feasible. Ships needed a greater hull size to store long-term provisions. This changed ships from excursionary vessels to small, floating towns designed to house hundreds of people. This demanded a reduction for an already dismal quality of life. Overcrowding was inevitable, if sleeping quarters were even offered at all. Hammocks were offered as an incentive in the British navy, as most ships would simply have you sleep on the ground.
Regardless of how much food you can store, most varieties have an inevitable expiration date. The obvious answer seems to be catching fish, but there are a few problems with this. The first is simple scarcity. The lack of a continental shelf means that few organisms can reliably survive in open water, and those that do are not very filling. The second is stranger and more frightening, as open ocean provides a breeding ground for otherwise rare varieties of algae. Of course humans wouldn't eat the stuff, but the fish in the area do. Over time it can build up in their systems and render the entire animal toxic to humans. This phenomena makes eating deep-sea fish a gamble, and considering that 19th century science was oblivious to the process it was a risk not many were willing to take. Some even theorize that this phenomena gave rise to superstition about "sea curses", as sailors would drop dead overnight after eating an ostensibly normal fish.
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| A diagram of the common Wheat Weevil |
Usually, non-perishable food and drink was stocked ahead of time for long voyages, leading to the prevalence of hard tack and alcohol. Neither option was nutritious, and only the latter was palatable, but both could last the months-long voyage without going bad. Hardtack was a kind of biscuit made from salt, flour, and water. Any additions could risk spoilage, so the result was always bland and tough. While hardtack was nearly impervious to the elements, it was susceptible to infestation by weevils. Weevils are a small species of beetle, and while they are nauseating they are also non-toxic. The poor rations were made a bit better by an abundance of alcohol, usually whiskey, rum, or grog (watered down rum.)
Notably, this diet left sailors in a near-constant state of altered consciousness. One could expect to be drunk, sick, or sleep-deprived at any given moment. Pair this with weeks of isolation and it's no wonder that cases of "sea madness" would arise. Violent outbursts were common, only held in check by the threat of superior violence from armed enforcers. This reality is characterized well in Dracula, as the crew of the Demeter fall prey to a very real supernatural force. The crew are reluctant to explain their concerns to the captain as the only reasonable explanation would be madness. Sure enough, when one of the crew tries to explain the mate "lost temper with one of them that day and struck him", the usual response to discontent. The cruel fate of those onboard the ship is one faced by many sailors of the time, the novel just applies a tangible cause to it.
(note: an interesting aspect to the novel is the Demeter's ultimate fate as a "ghost ship", a staple of nautical superstition. These legendary ships supposedly sail the seas without a crew, and a few actually have some reputable backing. The Mary Celeste is the most famous and well-documented instance of the story, found abandoned but intact off the Azores archipelago. Some ascribe a kind of intelligence to these ships, much like the Demeter as it finds it's way into port.)
The End of the Golden Age of Piracy
Piracy is a concept that has plagued sea travel since it's inception. The isolation afforded by the sea makes for perfect conditions for criminal activity, (something Count Dracula takes direct advantage of in the novel). This led to the infamous "Golden Age of Piracy", a key component in colonial sensationalism. Despite the barbaric reality of the period, it provided a conceptual kind of hope to many poor Europeans. The promise of unclaimed wealth and a chance at starting anew lured many to professional privateering and outright piracy, turning sea travel from tramp's work to a chance at adventure.
By the turn of the 17th century piracy was in decline, primarily due to the renewal of the British navy. Harsh sentences and offers of amnesty lured many away from the field, and the empire simply ceased to fund their privateers. This inarguably made the sea a less violent place,(mind you it was still plenty violent, punishment was just back on the table,) but the appeal for the layman was lost. For maybe another 100 years the dream remained, but by the 19th century maritime industry had returned to being a mere business.
With the few redeeming aspects of the field gone, the world was left with a renewed horror for sailing as a profession. The poor conditions, ruthless commanders, and high mortality were all decried in full. In addition, the onset of steam ships made long-distance sea travel accessible to the middle and lower classes, allowing them to experience the hardship personally. Fiction gradually shifted from depicting sea travel as glamorous and more and more works portrayed the process as realistically grim. Dracula is one such example, calling direct attention to the long hours and poor weather. Stoker's depiction of sailing life is a rather accurate one that portrays the banality of the trade, as miserable as it is it's simply a job to most. The characters of the story are trapped with their tormentor not due to some malign curse or trick, but the very nature of their work.
Citations
Stoker, Bram. Dracula (Norton Critical Editions). Available from: Commonwealth University of Pennsylvania, (2nd Edition). W. W. Norton, 2021.
*Author's Note: It just so happens that Maritime history is a passion of mine, a passion that has leaked into my music taste. As such I have taken the liberty of compiling a playlist of (mostly) period-accurate sea shanties from my favorite artists. A traditional sea shanty features a rhythmic 6/8 or 12/8 time signature. This "call and response" rhythm allowed large crews to remain in step with one another despite minimal training. The songs also kept the crew engaged during their weeks at sea, often necessitating a designated "shanty man" to lead the songs. The songs in my playlist mostly deviate in their number and variety of instruments, as most sea shanties were performed a-cappella. Due to these limitations many find traditional shanties boring, and I will take this opportunity to remind you that that's the point. Your options were this or a chorus of wind, waves, and grunting seamen. That being said, if I hear one bad word about the Dreadnoughts I WILL fight you.
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